Lithium-Ion Batteries

Material Composition Assumptions

The default chemistry is NMC811 (nickel-manganese-cobalt in 8:1:1 ratio), the dominant chemistry for EV traction batteries:

• Cathode active material (NMC811): Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide — approximately 35% of cell mass. Nickel and lithium processing are the primary emission drivers.
• Anode (graphite): Natural or synthetic graphite — approximately 15-20% of cell mass. Synthetic graphite is more energy-intensive (processed at ~3000 C).
• Electrolyte: Lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) in organic solvents (ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate) — approximately 10-15% of cell mass.
• Separator: Polyethylene or polypropylene microporous film — approximately 3% of cell mass.
• Current collectors: Aluminum foil (cathode side) and copper foil (anode side) — approximately 10% of cell mass; aluminum contributes ~12% of total emissions.
• Cell housing: Aluminum or steel prismatic/pouch/cylindrical casing — approximately 15-20% of cell mass.

The CCI score of 79 kgCO2e per kWh represents the NMC811 global-average production footprint, consistent with the PNAS Nexus 2023 estimate and the Nature Communications 2024 median range.

Manufacturing Geography

The default manufacturing region is China, which produces over 75% of global lithium-ion battery cells.

• Grid intensity: 565 gCO2e/kWh (IEA 2024 estimate for China). This significantly impacts Scope 2 emissions given the electricity-intensive nature of cell manufacturing (dry rooms, formation cycling, electrode coating).
• Rationale: CATL, BYD, and other Chinese manufacturers dominate global cell production. South Korean (Samsung SDI, LG Energy Solution, SK On) and emerging European (Northvolt, ACC) and US (Panasonic, LG Ohio) gigafactories represent a growing but still minority share.

Research published in the Journal of Cleaner Production (2024) demonstrates that batteries produced in countries with decarbonized electricity grids (Sweden, France, Switzerland) have approximately 60% lower carbon footprints than those produced in China.

Regional Variation

Region	Grid Intensity	Estimated kgCO2e/kWh
China	~565 gCO2e/kWh	79 (baseline, NMC811)
South Korea	~450 gCO2e/kWh	68
USA average	~390 gCO2e/kWh	62
EU average	~300 gCO2e/kWh	55
Sweden/Norway	~30-50 gCO2e/kWh	35-40

Note: Production location has a substantial impact because cell manufacturing is highly electricity-intensive. The cathode active material supply chain (mining and refining of nickel, cobalt, lithium) is largely fixed regardless of cell assembly location, so Scope 3 reductions from relocation are limited. The primary benefit of low-carbon grids is in the Scope 2 reduction.

Provenance Override Guidance

A supplier or manufacturer may override the default CCI score by submitting:

1. Battery-specific Product Carbon Footprint (PCF) per ISO 14067 or the EU Battery Regulation (2023/1542) mandatory carbon footprint declaration requirements (effective 2025+).
2. Cell chemistry declaration specifying NMC811, NMC622, NMC532, LFP, NCA, or other chemistry with corresponding cathode active material emission factors.
3. Gigafactory energy source disclosure including grid emission factor, on-site renewable generation, and power purchase agreements.
4. Raw material provenance including nickel source (laterite vs. sulfide ore), lithium source (brine vs. spodumene), and refining location.
5. Recycled content percentage for nickel, cobalt, lithium, and graphite, with chain-of-custody documentation.

The EU Battery Regulation requires all batteries placed on the EU market to carry a carbon footprint declaration starting in 2025, with performance classes to follow, making verified data increasingly available.

Methodology Notes

• CCI score of 79 kgCO2e per kWh represents NMC811 chemistry at the global-average production mix (predominantly Chinese manufacturing). This is consistent with the PNAS Nexus 2023 value of 79 kgCO2eq/kWh and falls between the Nature Communications 2024 median of 74 kgCO2e/kWh and the 75th percentile. The conservative default accounts for supply chain variation.
• NMC vs. LFP: LFP batteries have a substantially lower footprint at approximately 55-62 kgCO2e/kWh (about 70% of NMC), primarily because LFP cathode production emits approximately 15 kgCO2e/kWh versus 38 kgCO2e/kWh for NMC811 cathode. The default uses NMC as the conservative choice.
• Scope breakdown: Scope 3 dominates at 73% (58 kgCO2e/kWh), driven by cathode active material mining and refining (nickel, cobalt, lithium) and anode graphite processing. Scope 2 is 23% (18 kgCO2e/kWh) from electricity-intensive cell manufacturing processes. Scope 1 is 4% (3 kgCO2e/kWh) from direct combustion in drying and NMP solvent recovery.
• Functional unit: One kWh of nameplate battery capacity, cradle-to-gate, covering material extraction through cell manufacturing. Pack-level assembly (BMS, cooling, housing) adds approximately 5-10 kgCO2e/kWh but is excluded from the cell-level score.
• Cathode dominance: Across nickel-based chemistries, cathode production (including active material synthesis) contributes approximately 44-60% of total cell emissions, making it the single most impactful component.
• Data gaps: Rapidly evolving manufacturing scale and technology (e.g., dry electrode coating, solid-state electrolytes) may reduce future emissions. Published LCA data often lags current manufacturing practices by 2-3 years.
• End-of-life credit: Battery recycling can recover nickel, cobalt, lithium, and copper, potentially offsetting 10-20% of production emissions. This credit is excluded from the CCI score to maintain conservatism.